Отправлено: 22.10.08 08:45. Заголовок: A.Y. Dandekar Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties

Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties


members: ? 50.00 | non-members: ? 60.00
In stock

hardcover - ISBN 9780849330438

Author: A.Y. Dandekar
Publisher: Taylor & Francis Group
Offering a well-balanced presentation of fundamental concepts and practical aspects, this book describes various rock and fluid properties using mathematical expressions and various laboratory measurement techniques to illustrate the correlations and influence between the various properties and relate them to reservoir and petroleum engineering. The book includes references from petroleum and other engineering literature, discussions on methods for tackling problems encountered in real life situations, extensive graphical illustrations, and practice problems on practical applications. It is ideal for undergraduate and graduate students and a valuable reference for chemical engineers.


======================================================================
Dandekar A.Y. Petroleum reservoir rock and fluid properties / Dandekar A.Y. - Boca Raton: CRC/Taylor & Francis, 2006. - 460 p. - ISBN 0-8493-3043-2.

Оглавление


Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................... 1

1.1 The Formation of Petroleum Reservoirs ....................................... 1
1.2 Typical Characteristics of Petroleum Reservoirs ............................. 1
1.3 The Significance of Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties ........... 3


Chapter 2 Preamble to Petroleum Reservoir Rock Properties ....................... 5

2.1 Introduction ................................................................ 5
2.2 Coring Methods .............................................................. 6
2.2.1 Rotary Method ......................................................... 6
2.2.2 Sidewall Coring ....................................................... 6
2.2.3 High-Pressure Coring .................................................. 6
2.3 Important Issues Related to Coring Methods .................................. 7
2.4 Types of Cores .............................................................. 7
2.4.1 Whole Core ............................................................ 7
2.4.2 Core Plug ............................................................. 8
2.5 Allocation of Core Data for Measurement of Reservoir Rock Properties ........ 9
2.6 Handling of Reservoir Rock Core Samples ..................................... 9
2.7 Types of Core Tests ........................................................ 10
2.7.1 Routine or Conventional Core Analysis ................................ 10
2.7.2 Special Core Analysis ................................................ 10
References ..................................................................... 11


Chapter 3 Porosity ............................................................. 13

3.1 Significance and Definition ................................................ 13
3.2 Types of Porosities ........................................................ 13
3.2.1 Total or Absolute Porosity ........................................... 14
3.2.2 Effective Porosity ................................................... 15
3.2.3 Ineffective Porosity ................................................. 15
3.3 Classification of Porosity ................................................. 16
3.4 Parameters That Influence Porosity ......................................... 16
3.5 Laboratory Measurement of Porosity ......................................... 17
3.5.1 Porosity Determination Using Routine Core Analysis ................... 18
3.5.1.1 Bulk Volume Measurement ...................................... 18
3.5.1.2 Pore Volume Measurement ...................................... 19
3.5.1.3 Grain Volume Measurement ..................................... 21
3.6 Nonconventional Methods of Porosity Measurements ........................... 22
3.7 Averaging of Porosity ...................................................... 23
3.8 Examples of Typical Porosities ............................................. 24
Problems ....................................................................... 25
References ..................................................................... 26


Chapter 4 Absolute Permeability ................................................ 27

4.1 Significance and Definition ............................................... 27
4.2 Mathematical Expression of Permeability: Darcy's Law ...................... 27
4.3 Dimensional Analysis of Permeability and Definition of a Darcy ............ 30
4.4 Application of Darcy's Law to Inclined Flow and Radial Flow ............... 31
4.5 Averaging of Permeabilities ............................................... 33
4.5.1 Parallel Flow ....................................................... 34
4.5.2 Series Flow ......................................................... 35
4.6 Permeability of Fractures and Channels .................................... 37
4.7 Darcy's Law in Field Units ................................................ 39
4.8 Laboratory Measurement of Absolute Permeability ........................... 40
4.8.1 Measurement of Absolute Permeability Using Liquids .................. 40
4.8.2 Measurement of Absolute Permeability Using Gases .................... 42
4.9 Factors Affecting Absolute Permeability ................................... 45
4.9.1 Rock-Related Factors ................................................ 46
4.9.2 Fluid Phase-Related Factors ......................................... 47
4.9.3 Thermodynamic Factors ............................................... 49
4.9.4 Mechanical Factors .................................................. 49
4.10 Porosity and Permeability Relationships ................................... 50
4.11 Permeabilities of Different Types of Rocks ................................ 52
Problems ....................................................................... 52
References ..................................................................... 54


Chapter 5 Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Reservoir Rocks .............. 55

5.1 Introduction ............................................................... 55
5.2 Mechanical Properties ...................................................... 56
5.2.1 Stress ............................................................... 56
5.2.2 Strain ............................................................... 56
5.2.3 The Stress-Strain Relationship ....................................... 57
5.2.3.1 Factors Affecting the Stress-Strain Relationship ............. 58
5.2.4 Rock Strength ........................................................ 59
5.2.5 Rock Mechanics Parameters ............................................ 59
5.2.5.1 Poisson's Ratio .............................................. 59
5.2.5.2 Young's Modulus .............................................. 60
5.2.5.3 Modulus of Rigidity .......................................... 61
5.2.5.4 Bulk Modulus ................................................. 61
5.2.6 Laboratory Measurement of Rock Strength .............................. 61
5.2.6.1 Triaxial Cell ................................................ 62
5.2.7 Reservoir Rock Compressibility ....................................... 64
5.2.7.1 Empirical Correlations of Formation Compressibility .......... 66
5.3 Electrical Properties ...................................................... 66
5.3.1 Fundamental Concepts and the Archie Equation ........................ 67
5.3.1.1 Formation Factor ............................................. 67
5.3.1.2 Tortuosity ................................................... 68
5.3.1.3 Cementation Factor ........................................... 68
5.3.1.4 Resistivity Index ............................................ 68
5.3.2 Effect of Wettability on Electrical Properties ....................... 71
5.3.3 Effect of Clay on Electrical Properties .............................. 73
Problems ....................................................................... 75
References ..................................................................... 77


Chapter 6 Fluid Saturation ..................................................... 79

6.1 Significance and Definition ................................................ 79
6.2 Distribution of Fluid Saturation in a Petroleum Reservoir .................. 80
6.3 Definition and Mathematical Expressions for Fluid Saturation ............... 80
6.4 Reservoir Rock Samples Used for Fluid Saturation Determination ............. 82
6.5 Laboratory Measurement of Fluid Saturation ................................. 83
6.5.1 Retort Distillation .................................................. 84
6.5.2 Dean-Stark Extraction ................................................ 86
6.6 Assessing the Validity of Fluid Saturation Data Measured on the Plug-End
Trim for the Core Plug Sample .............................................. 88
6.7 Special Types of Fluid Saturations ......................................... 89
6.7.1 Critical Gas Saturation .............................................. 90
6.7.2 Residual Oil Saturation .............................................. 90
6.7.3 Irreducible Water Saturation ......................................... 93
6.8 Saturation Averaging ....................................................... 94
6.9 Factors Affecting Fluid Saturation Determination ........................... 95
6.9.1 Effect of Drilling Muds on Fluid Saturation .......................... 95
6.9.2 Effect of Fluid Expansion on Fluid Saturation ........................ 97
6.9.3 Combined Effects of Mud Filtrate Invasion and Fluid Expansion
on Fluid Saturation .................................................. 98
6.9.4 Mitigation of Mud Filtrate Invasion and Fluid Expansion Effects
on Fluid Saturation ................................................. 100
6.9.4.1 Measures That Avoid or Account for Mud Filtrate Invasion .... 101
6.9.4.2 Measures That Avoid or Account for Fluid Expansion .......... 104
Problems ...................................................................... 106
References .................................................................... 107


Chapter 7 Interfacial Tension and Wettability ................................. 109

7.1 Introduction and Fundamental Concepts ..................................... 109
7.2 Interfacial and Surface Tension ........................................... 110
7.2.1 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Interfacial Tension
and Surface Tension ................................................. 112
7.2.2 Laboratory Measurement of Interfacial Tension ....................... 115
7.3 Wettability ............................................................... 116
7.4 Fundamental Concepts of Wettability ....................................... 117
7.5 A Discussion on Practical Aspects of Wettability .......................... 121
7.5.1 Classification/Types of Wettability ................................. 122
7.5.1.1 Water-Wet ................................................... 122
7.5.1.2 Oil-Wet ..................................................... 122
7.5.1.3 Intermediate Wet ............................................ 122
7.5.1.4 Fractional Wettability ...................................... 123
7.5.1.5 Mixed Wettability ........................................... 123
7.6 Measurement of Reservoir Rock Wettability ................................. 123
7.6.1 Contact Angle Measurement ........................................... 124
7.6.1.1 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Contact Angles ........ 126
7.6.2 Core Samples for Amott Test and USBM Methods ........................ 126
7.6.3 Amott Test .......................................................... 128
7.6.3.1 Modification of the Amott Test (Amott-Harvey Test) .......... 130
7.6.4 USBM Method ......................................................... 131
7.7 Factors Affecting Wettability ............................................. 133
7.7.1 Composition of the Reservoir Oil .................................... 133
7.7.2 Composition of the Brine ............................................ 134
7.7.3 Reservoir Pressure and Temperature .................................. 135
7.7.4 Depth of the Reservoir Structure .................................... 136
7.8 Relationship between Wettability and Irreducible Water Saturation
and Residual Oil Saturation ............................................... 137
7.8.1 Wettability and Irreducible Water Saturation ........................ 137
7.8.2 Wettability and Residual Oil Saturation ............................. 138
Problems ...................................................................... 140
References .................................................................... 141


Chapter 8 Capillary Pressure .................................................. 145

8.1 Introduction ............................................................. 145
8.2 Basic Mathematical Expression of Capillary Pressure ...................... 146
8.3 The Rise of Liquid in Capillaries ........................................ 147
8.4 Dependence of Capillary Pressure On Rock and Fluid Properties ............ 150
8.5 Capillary Pressure and Saturation History ................................ 151
8.6 Laboratory Measurement of Capillary Pressure ............................. 153
8.6.1 Leverett's Capillary Pressure Experiments .......................... 154
8.6.2 Porous Diaphragm Method ............................................ 156
8.6.3 Mercury Injection Method ........................................... 157
8.6.4 Centrifuge Method .................................................. 159
8.7 Characteristics of Capillary Pressure Curves ............................. 160
8.7.1 Saturation Scale ................................................... 161
8.7.2 Pressure Scale ..................................................... 161
8.7.3 Capillary Hysterisis ............................................... 162
8.7.4 Capillary Pressure and Permeability ................................ 163
8.8 Converting Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data to Reservoir Conditions .... 163
8.9 Averaging Capillary Pressure: The J Function ............................. 166
8.10 Calculation of Permeability from Capillary Pressure ...................... 168
8.11 Effect of Wettability on Capillary Pressure .............................. 170
8.12 Practical Application of Capillary Pressure .............................. 172
8.12.1 Pore Size Distribution ............................................ 173
8.12.2 Pore Throat Sorting ............................................... 176
8.12.3 Connate Water Saturation .......................................... 176
8.12.4 Zonation, Fluid Contacts, and Initial Saturation Distribution
in a Reservoir .................................................... 177
8.12.4.1 Free Water Level ......................................... 178
8.12.4.2 Oil-Water Contact ........................................ 179
8.12.4.3 Transition Zone .......................................... 179
8.12.4.4 Oil Pay Zone or Clean Oil Zone ........................... 180
8.12.4.5 Fluid Saturation in the Gas Zone ......................... 180
Problems ...................................................................... 181
References .................................................................... 182


Chapter 9 Relative Permeability ............................................... 185

9.1 Fundamental Concepts of Relative Permeability ............................ 185
9.2 Mathematical Expressions for Relative Permeability ....................... 186
9.3 Salient Features of Gas-Oil and Water-Oil Relative Permeability Curves ... 187
9.3.1 The End-Point Fluid Saturations .................................... 189
9.3.2 The Base Permeabilities ............................................ 189
9.3.3 End-Point Permeabilities and Relative Permeability Curves .......... 189
9.3.3.1 Gas-Oil Relative Permeability Curves ....................... 190
9.3.3.2 Oil-Water Relative Permeability Curves ..................... 190
9.3.4 The Direction of the Relative Permeability Curves .................. 192
9.4 Laboratory Measurement of Relative Permeability .......................... 192
9.4.1 Flowchart for Relative Permeability Measurements ................... 193
9.4.2 Core Plug Samples Used in Relative Permeability Measurements ....... 195
9.4.3 Displacement Fluids and Test Conditions ............................ 196
9.4.3.1 Room Condition Tests ....................................... 196
9.4.3.2 Partial Reservoir Condition Tests .......................... 196
9.4.3.3 Reservoir Condition Tests .................................. 197
9.4.4 Establishment of Initial Water Saturation .......................... 197
9.4.4.1 Preserved Core Plug Samples ................................ 197
9.4.4.2 Cleaned Core Plug Samples .................................. 198
9.4.5 Determination of Base Permeability ................................. 198
9.4.6 Displacement Apparatus for Relative Permeability ................... 200
9.4.7 Steady-State Technique ............................................. 201
9.4.8 Unsteady-State Technique ........................................... 204
9.4.8.1 Buckley-Leverett to Welge to Johnson-Bossler-Naumann ....... 205
9.4.8.2 Relative Permeabilities from the Alternate Method .......... 217
9.4.9 Capillary End Effect ............................................... 218
9.5 Determination of Relative Permeability from Capillary Pressure Data ...... 220
9.6 Factors Affecting Relative Permeability Measurements ..................... 222
9.6.1 Effect of Fluid Saturation, History of Saturation, and Initial
Water Saturation ................................................... 223
9.6.2 Effect of Wettability on Relative Permeability ..................... 225
9.6.3 Effect of Rock Pore Structure ...................................... 226
9.6.4 Effect of Overburden Stress (Confining Stress) ..................... 227
9.6.5 Effect of Clay Content and Movement of Fines ....................... 228
9.6.6 Effect of Temperature .............................................. 228
9.6.7 Effect of Interfacial Tension, Viscosity, and Flow Velocity ........ 228
9.7 Peculiarities of Relative Permeability Data .............................. 230
9.8 Assessing the Validity of Relative Permeability Data and Determination
of Corey Exponents ....................................................... 232
9.9 Significance of Relative Permeability Data ............................... 234
9.9.1 Example of Practical Application of Relative Permeability Data ..... 235
9.10 Three-Phase Relative Permeability ........................................ 237
9.10.1 Representation of Three-Phase Relative Permeability Data .......... 237
9.10.2 Empirical Models for Three-Phase Relative Permeability ............ 239
Problems ...................................................................... 241
References .................................................................... 244


Chapter 10 Introduction to Petroleum Reservoir Fluids ......................... 247

10.1 Introduction ............................................................. 247
10.2 Chemistry of Petroleum ................................................... 247
10.2.1 Alkanes ........................................................... 248
10.2.2 Alkenes ........................................................... 249
10.2.3 Alkynes ........................................................... 250
10.2.4 Cycloaliphatics ................................................... 250
10.2.5 Aromatics ......................................................... 250
10.2.6 Nonhydrocarbons in Reservoir Fluids ............................... 251
10.3 The Solid Components of Petroleum ........................................ 251
10.3.1 Gas Hydrates ...................................................... 251
10.3.2 Waxes ............................................................. 252
10.3.3 Asphaltenes ....................................................... 252
10.3.4 Diamondoids ....................................................... 252
10.4 Classification of Reservoir Gases and Oils ............................... 252
10.4.1 Chemical Classification of Reservoir Oils or Crude Oils ........... 253
10.4.2 Physical Classification of Crude Oils ............................. 253
10.5 Five Reservoir Fluids .................................................... 254
10.6 Formation Waters ......................................................... 255
Reference ..................................................................... 255


Chapter 11 Introduction to Phase Behavior ..................................... 257

11.1 Introduction ............................................................. 257
11.2 Definition of Terms Used in Phase Behavior ............................... 258
11.2.1 Phase ............................................................. 258
11.2.2 Pressure, Temperature, and Intermolecular Forces .................. 258
11.2.3 Equilibrium ....................................................... 258
11.2.4 Component and Composition ......................................... 258
11.2.5 Distinction between Gases and Liquids ............................. 259
11.2.6 Types of Physical Properties ...................................... 259
11.2.7 Phase Rule ........................................................ 259
11.3 Phase Behavior of a Pure Component ....................................... 260
11.3.1 Phase Diagram of a Pure Component ................................. 260
11.3.1.1 Vapor Pressure Curve ..................................... 260
11.3.1.2 Critical Point ........................................... 261
11.3.1.3 Triple Point ............................................. 262
11.3.1.4 Melting Point Curve ...................................... 262
11.3.1.5 Sublimation-Pressure Curve ............................... 262
11.3.1.6 Conditions Outside the Pc-Tc Boundary .................... 262
11.3.2 Pressure-Volume Diagram ........................................... 263
11.3.3 Density-Temperature Behavior of a Pure Component .................. 264
11.3.4 Determination of Vapor Pressure ................................... 265
11.4 Phase Behavior of Two-Component or Binary Systems ........................ 266
11.4.1 Phase Diagram of a Binary System .................................. 267
11.4.1.1 Critical Point ........................................... 267
11.4.1.2 Bubble Point and Dew Point ............................... 268
11.4.1.3 Bubble-Point and Dew-Point Curves ........................ 268
11.4.1.4 Cricondenbar and Cricondentherm .......................... 269
11.4.1.5 Retrograde Dew Point and Condensation .................... 269
11.4.1.6 Behavior of a Mixture in the Two-Phase Region ............ 269
11.4.2 Effect of Changing the System Composition ......................... 272
11.5 Phase Behavior of Multicomponent Mixtures ................................ 274
11.6 Construction of Phase Envelopes .......................................... 275
Problems ...................................................................... 276
References .................................................................... 277


Chapter 12 Phase Behavior of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids ....................... 279

12.1 Introduction ............................................................ 279
12.2 Preamble to the Phase Behavior of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids ............ 279
12.3 A Brief Description of the Plus Fraction ................................ 280
12.4 Classification and Identification of Fluid Type ......................... 281
12.5 Black Oils .............................................................. 281
12.6 Volatile Oils ........................................................... 282
12.7 Gas Condensates ......................................................... 285
12.8 Wet Gases ............................................................... 287
12.9 Dry Gases ............................................................... 288
12.10 Behavior of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids in the Two-Phase Region .......... 288
Problems ...................................................................... 291
References .................................................................... 292


Chapter 13 Sampling of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids ............................. 293

13.1 Introduction ............................................................. 293
13.2 Practical Considerations of Fluid Sampling ............................... 294
13.2.1 Well Conditioning ................................................. 294
13.3 Methods of Fluid Sampling ................................................ 296
13.3.1 Subsurface Sampling ............................................... 296
13.3.2 Wellhead Sampling ................................................. 296
13.3.3 Surface Sampling .................................................. 297
13.4 Evaluating the Representativity of Fluid Samples: Quality Checks ......... 298
13.5 Factors Affecting Sample Representativity ................................ 299
Problems ...................................................................... 301
References .................................................................... 301


Chapter 14 Compositional Analysis of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids ............... 303

14.1 Introduction ............................................................. 303
14.2 Strategy of Compositional Analysis ....................................... 303
14.2.1 Surface Samples of Separator Gas and Liquid ....................... 304
14.2.2 Blow-Down Method .................................................. 304
14.2.3 Direct Determination of Composition ............................... 304
14.3 Characteristics of Reservoir Fluid Composition ........................... 305
14.3.1 Well-Defined Components ........................................... 306
14.3.2 Pseudo Fractions .................................................. 306
14.3.3 Plus Fraction ..................................................... 306
14.4 Gas Chromatography ....................................................... 307
14.5 True Boiling-Point Distillation .......................................... 309
14.5.1 Properties of TBP Cuts and Residue ................................ 310
14.5.2 Internal Consistency of TBP Data .................................. 311
14.5.3 Properties of TBP Cuts and Generalized Data ....................... 313
14.6 Characterization of Pseudo Fractions and Residue ......................... 314
14.7 Other Nonc ...